Konsep Belajar (2)

  Belajar, menurut para behavioris, adalah sesuatu yang dilakukan orang untuk merespons stimuli eksternal. Pandangan ini merupakan perubahan penting dari model-model sebelumnya yang menekankan pada kesadaran dan introspeksi, dan belum menghasilkan banyak temuan yang dapat digeneralisasikan tentang bagaimana orang belajar. Ingin tahu selanjutnya? Ulasan lebih detail bisa klik di sini.

Ingin tahu ukuran berat & kecepatan suatu blog?

  Dalam membuat blog tentunya kita ingin supaya blog kita tampil semenarik mungkin. Namun karena terlalu semangatnya kita dalam mempercantik blog, kadang-kadang kita sampai melupakan sesuatu yang penting, yaitu masalah berat (size) dan kecepatan (speed) berapa lama waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk membuka blog kita.
  Walaupun blog kita bagus tapi kalau blog kita lama sekali dibukanya maka pengunjungpun jadi enggan untuk singgah di blog kita. Kita tentu pernah juga membuka suatu web/blog yang lama sekali, karena saking lamanya kita akhirnya tidak jadi membuka web/blog tersebut. Tentu kita tidak menginginkan hal itu kan? Di link ini dapat diketahui seberapa besar ukuran suatu blog berikut kecepatannya.

Kalau sudah besar, mau jadi apa?

  Pertanyaan di atas seringkali keluar saat saya duduk di pangkuan ayah, di waktu kecil. Tidaklah mengherankan memang jika ujaran itu acap kali dilontarkan oleh orangtua kepada anaknya. Karena masih terlihat lugu, sang ayah pun membimbing anaknya dengan mengajukan 2 opsi, orang pintar atau orang bodoh?
Tentu saja pilihan pertama yang saya ambil.
  Saat itu orang bodoh sering digambarkan dengan orang yang tidak berpakaian, lalu-lalang di jalan, juga tolah-toleh ke kiri dan ke kanan. Entah apa yang dicari. Mungkin ia sedang mencari ilmu, dengan caranya sendiri.
  Berbeda halnya dengan orang pintar. Karakter yang menjadi idaman banyak orang itu senantiasa merujuk kepada mereka yang berpakaian rapi, tidak kumuh, juga memiliki sorot mata yang tajam ke depan.
Pertanyaan berikutnya adalah apakah bodoh dan pintar itu hanya untuk orang besar? Adakah frase "anak pintar" dan "anak bodoh"?
  Jika mengacu kepada Multiple Intelligence-nya Howard Gardner, jawaban yang paling mungkin dapat diterima adalah TIDAK ADA. Kenapa demikian? We all learn in different ways menurutnya adalah jawaban yang paling tepat.

Cognitive Theories of Learning

Assumption: you can't force someone to learn

  Cognitive theory defines learning as "a semi-permanent change in mental processes or associations." Cognitivists do not require an outward exibition of learning but focus more on the internal processes and connections that take place during learning.

  The main assumption of cognitive psychology is that there are cognitive processes that take place and influence the way things are learned. Explanations for how cognitive processes work are known as information processing theories or models. The three-component model of information processing is taught in Educational Psychology. It looks something like this:

 

  Important classroom principles from cognitive psychology include meaningful learning, organization, and elaboration.

  Create an environment where there are lots of manipulatables, tools where they can develop an understanding. An instructor can ask questions to help students refine their thinking and recognize where they may be wrong.

  Failure may be considered a good thing as it is a tool to help learners realize that they need to learn more.

Sumber: http://www.innovativelearning.com/educational_psychology/cognitivism/index.htm

Constructivist Theory (Jerome Bruner)

  A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to "go beyond the information given".
  As far as instruction is concerned, the instructor should try and encourage students to discover principles by themselves. The instructor and student should engage in an active dialog (i.e., socratic learning). The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned.
  Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects: (1) predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner, (3) the most effective sequences in which to present material, and (4) the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments. Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information.
  In his more recent work, Bruner (1986, 1990, 1996) has expanded his theoretical framework to encompass the social and cultural aspects of learning as well as the practice of law.

Application

  Bruner's constructivist theory is a general framework for instruction based upon the study of cognition. Much of the theory is linked to child development research (especially Piaget ). The ideas outlined in Bruner (1960) originated from a conference focused on science and math learning. Bruner illustrated his theory in the context of mathematics and social science programs for young children (see Bruner, 1973). The original development of the framework for reasoning processes is described in Bruner, Goodnow & Austin (1951). Bruner (1983) focuses on language learning in young children.
  Note that Constructivism is a very broad conceptual framework in philosophy and science and Bruner's theory represents one particular perspective. For an overview of other Constructivist frameworks, see http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/constructivism.html.

 

Example

  This example is taken from Bruner (1973):
"The concept of prime numbers appears to be more readily grasped when the child, through construction, discovers that certain handfuls of beans cannot be laid out in completed rows and columns. Such quantities have either to be laid out in a single file or in an incomplete row-column design in which there is always one extra or one too few to fill the pattern. These patterns, the child learns, happen to be called prime. It is easy for the child to go from this step to the recognition that a multiple table , so called, is a record sheet of quantities in completed mutiple rows and columns. Here is factoring, multiplication and primes in a construction that can be visualized."

 

Principles

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization).
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).

 

References

Bruner, J. (1960). The Process of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J. (1973). Going Beyond the Information Given. New York: Norton.
Bruner, J. (1983). Child's Talk: Learning to Use Language. New York: Norton.
Bruner, J. (1986). Actual Minds, Possible Worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of Meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J. (1996). The Culture of Education, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J., Goodnow, J., & Austin, A. (1956). A Study of Thinking. New York: Wiley.

 

Related Websites

More about Bruner can be found at:
http://www.infed.org/thinkers/bruner.htm
http://www.psych.nyu.edu/bruner

Sumber: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/constructivist.html